Table 1 Overview of referenced candidate genes studies investigating the association between DNAm and prenatal stress

[43]

CRH, CRHBP, FKBP1, NR3C1

450 K array

24

Prenatal psychosocial stress;

31% with 0–1 chronic stressors; 69% with 2–18 chronic stressors

DNAm at birth

Cordblood,placenta

Newborns;

54% male

Effects on cord blood DNAm in CRH and NR3C1, effects on placenta DNAm in all four tested genes

[60]

FKBP5, HSD11B2, NR3C1

450 k array

59

Perceived maternal prenatal stress scale

DNAm at birth

Placenta

Newborns;

49% male

Higher perceived stress associated with higher DNAm

[63]^a

NR3C1,

SLC6A4

Next-generation

Sequencing (NGS)

283

Pandemic lockdown;

n = 81 in 1st trimester,

n = 84 in 2nd trimester,

n = 118 in 3rd trimester

DNAm

6–24 h after birth

Buccal

Newborns; 50% male

Higher methylation if exposed to pandemic lockdown during 2nd or 3rd trimester

[71, 72]

NR3C1

Different

977

(meta-analysis)

Maternal chronic psychosocial stress during pregnancy

DNAm in children

Different

Newborns; one study included adolescents at mean age of 14 years

Significant correlation of DNAm and psychosocial stress

[76]

NR3C1,

NR3C2

Pyro-sequencing

50

Exposure to Tusti genocide during pregnancy;

n = 25 offspring of mothers exposed to Tutsi genocide during pregnancy, n = 25 unexposed

DNAm in children

Blood

Adolescents aged 17–18 years, 48% male in exposed, 36% male in unexposed

Higher DNAm in NR3C1 in children whose mothers had been exposed

[78]^a

SLC6A4

NGS

108

Covid19-related prenatal stress score in 3rd trimester

DNAm

6–24 h after birth

Buccal

Newborns;

49% male

Hypermethylation in

3rd trimester

[79]

NR3C1

NGS

24

Intimate partner violence (IPV) in pregnancy;

n = 8 with IPV, n = 16 without IPV

DNAm in children

Blood

Children

10–19 years;

33% male

Positive relationship between DNAm and IPV

in pregnancy

[93]

11HSDB2, CRH,

CRHBP,

FKBP5,

NR3C1,

OXTR, SLC6A4

Different

Systematic review

Maternal stress in pregnancy

DNAm in infants

Different

Children aged below 12 months

Strongest association between most severe stressors and infant DNAm

[99]

NR3C1

Different

Systematic review

Early life adversity, maternal psychosocial stress, parental stress

DNAm in offspring

Different

Children from birth to 18 years of age

Increased DNAm in exposed children

[106]

FKBP5

Pyro-sequencing

31

Holocaust experience, not only during pregnancy;

n = 22 whose parents experienced holocaust, n = 9 whose parents did not experience holocaust

DNAm in offspring

Blood

Offspring; mean age

46–47 years;

27% male in exposed, 11% male in unexposed

Lower FKBP5 DNAm in offspring of holocaust survivors