Associations between nutrients in one-carbon metabolism and fetal DNA methylation in pregnancies with or without gestational diabetes mellitus

Table 1 Maternal methyl nutrient intake and blood level in GDM and non-GDM participants

	GDM	non-GDM	Model 1 p	Model 2 p	Model 3 p
Choline intake (mg/d)	433 ± 30	357 ± 28	0.94	0.88	0.001
Betaine intake (mg/d)	131 ± 16	113 ± 14	0.28	0.31	0.12
Folate intake (µg/d)	435 ± 45	431 ± 41	0.01	0.04	0.90
Vitamin B₁₂ intake (µg/d)	5.6 ± 1.5	4.9 ± 1.4	0.98	0.95	0.57
Dietary methylation score	10.7 ± 0.8	9.7 ± 0.7	0.28	0.38	0.12
Plasma free choline (μmol/L)	10.4 ± 1.0	8.6 ± 1.0	0.02	0.01	0.01
Plasma betaine (μmol/L)	12.8 ± 1.0	12.8 ± 1.1	0.94	0.49	0.89
Serum folate (μg/L)	19.3 ± 2.8	15.6 ± 2.7	0.95	0.24	0.10
Serum holotranscobalamin (μg/L)	16.1 ± 1.2	16.5 ± 1.2	0.62	0.63	0.70
Plasma homocysteine (mmol/L)	10.7 ± 3.0	9.2 ± 3.0	0.72	0.34	0.48
Cord DNA methylation (Fold difference)	0.8 ± 0.1	1.0 ± 0.1	0.06	0.24	0.16
Placental DNA methylation (Fold difference)	0.8 ± 0.1	1.0 ± 0.1	0.11	0.46	0.54
Cord plasma SAM/SAH	0.07 ± 0.05	0.08 ± 0.04	0.93	0.61	0.81
Cord CRH methylation (%)	60 ± 1	52 ± 2	0.43	0.34	0.001
Placenta CRH methylation (%)	27 ± 3	26 ± 2	0.54	0.53	0.75
Cord IGF2 methylation (%)	27 ± 4	27 ± 5	0.57	0.68	0.97
Placenta IGF2 methylation (%)	33 ± 3	33 ± 5	0.78	0.54	0.79

n = 40 for the GDM group and n = 36 for non-GDM group for maternal biomarkers; n = 21 for the GDM group and n = 26 for the non-GDM group for placental and cord blood markers. Analyzed with ANCOVA except for average IGF2 and CRH methylation which were analyzed with the generalized linear mixed model; for maternal measurements, Model 1 did not adjust for covariates; Model 2 adjusted for maternal age, parity, race/ethnicity, and maternal education levels; Model 3 adjusted for pre-pregnancy BMI and total energy intake in addition to covariates in Model 2. For cord blood and placental measurements, neonate sex, gestational age at birth, and mode of delivery were also included as covariates in model 2 and 3. Values are mean ± standard deviation (SD). CRH corticotropin-releasing hormone, IGF2 insulin-like growth factor 2, SAM S-adenosylmethionine, SAH S-adenosylhomocysteine

ISSN: 1868-7083